As the world accelerates its transition to renewable energy, offshore wind farms (OWFs) are becoming a crucial pillar of the energy structure. In 2023, the global installed capacity of offshore wind power reached 117 GW, and it is expected to double to 320 GW by 2030. The current expansion potential is mainly concentrated in Europe (495 GW potential), Asia (292 GW), and the Americas (200 GW), while the installed potential in Africa and Oceania is relatively low (1.5 GW and 99 GW respectively). By 2050, it is expected that 15% of the new offshore wind power projects will adopt floating foundations, significantly expanding the development boundaries in deep waters. However, this energy transformation also brings significant ecological risks. During the construction, operation, and decommissioning stages of offshore wind farms, they may disturb various groups such as fish, invertebrates, seabirds, and marine mammals, including noise pollution, changes in electromagnetic fields, habitat transformation, and interference with foraging paths. However, at the same time, the wind turbine structures may also serve as “artificial reefs” to provide shelters and enhance local species diversity.
1.Offshore wind farms cause multi-dimensional disturbances to multiple species, and the responses exhibit high specificity in terms of species and behavior.
Offshore wind farms (OWFs) have complex impacts on various species such as seabirds, mammals, fish, and invertebrates during the construction, operation, and decommissioning phases. The responses of different species are significantly heterogeneous. For instance, flying vertebrates (such as gulls, loons, and three-toed gulls) have a high avoidance rate towards wind turbines, and their avoidance behavior increases with the rise in turbine density. However, some marine mammals such as seals and porpoises exhibit approaching behavior or show no obvious avoidance reaction. Some species (such as seabirds) may even abandon their breeding and feeding grounds due to wind farm interference, resulting in a decrease in local abundance. The anchor cable drift caused by floating wind farms may also increase the risk of cable entanglement, especially for large whales. The expansion of deep waters in the future will exacerbate this hazard.
2.Offshore wind farms alter the food web structure, increasing local species diversity but reducing regional primary productivity.
The wind turbine structure can act as an “artificial reef”, attracting filter-feeding organisms such as mussels and barnacles, thereby enhancing the complexity of the local habitat and attracting fish, birds and mammals. However, this “nutrient promotion” effect is usually limited to the vicinity of the turbine base, while at the regional scale, there may be a decline in productivity. For instance, models show that the wind turbine-induced formation of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) community in the North Sea can reduce the primary productivity by up to 8% through filter-feeding. Moreover, the wind field alters upwelling, vertical mixing and the redistribution of nutrients, which may lead to a cascading effect from phytoplankton to higher trophic level species.
3. Noise, electromagnetic fields and collision risks constitute the three major lethal pressures, and birds and marine mammals are the most sensitive to them.
During the construction of offshore wind farms, the activities of ships and the piling operations can cause collisions and deaths of sea turtles, fish, and cetaceans. The model estimates that at peak times, each wind farm has an average potential encounter with large whales once every month. The risk of bird collisions during the operation period is concentrated at the height of the wind turbines (20 – 150 meters), and some species such as the Eurasian Curlew (Numenius arquata), Black-tailed Gull (Larus crassirostris), and Black-bellied Gull (Larus schistisagus) are prone to encounter high mortality rates on migration routes. In Japan, in a certain wind farm deployment scenario, the annual potential number of bird deaths exceeds 250. Compared to land-based wind power, although no cases of bat deaths have been recorded for offshore wind power, the potential risks of cable entanglement and secondary entanglement (such as combined with abandoned fishing gear) still need to be vigilant about.
4. The assessment and mitigation mechanisms lack standardization, and global coordination and regional adaptation need to be advanced in two parallel tracks.
Currently, most assessments (ESIA, EIA) are project-level and lack cross-project and cross-temporal cumulative impact analysis (CIA), which limits the understanding of impacts at the species-group-ecosystem level. For instance, only 36% of the 212 mitigation measures have clear evidence of effectiveness. Some regions in Europe and North America have explored integrated multi-project CIA, such as the regional cumulative assessment conducted by BOEM on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf of the United States. However, they still face challenges such as insufficient baseline data and inconsistent monitoring. The authors suggest promoting the construction of standardized indicators, minimum monitoring frequencies, and adaptive management plans through international data sharing platforms (such as the CBD or ICES as the lead) and regional ecological monitoring programs (REMPs).
5. Emerging monitoring technologies enhance the accuracy of observing the interaction between wind power and biodiversity, and should be integrated throughout all stages of the life cycle.
Traditional monitoring methods (such as ship-based and air-based surveys) are costly and susceptible to weather conditions. However, emerging techniques such as eDNA, soundscapes monitoring, underwater videography (ROV/UAV) and AI recognition are rapidly replacing some manual observations, enabling frequent tracking of birds, fish, benthic organisms and invasive species. For instance, digital twin systems (Digital Twins) have been proposed for simulating the interaction between wind power systems and the ecosystem under extreme weather conditions, although current applications are still in the exploration stage. Different technologies are applicable to different stages of construction, operation and decommissioning. If combined with long-term monitoring designs (such as the BACI framework), it is expected to significantly enhance the comparability and traceability of biodiversity responses across scales.
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As offshore wind energy continues to expand worldwide, Frankstar is leveraging its extensive experience to support environmental monitoring for offshore wind farms and marine mammals. By combining advanced technology with field-proven practices, Frankstar is committed to contributing to the sustainable development of ocean renewable energy and the protection of marine biodiversity.
Post time: Sep-08-2025